On biometric IDs, India is a ‘laboratory for the rest of the world’

The Explainer

Most governments have a way to identify citizens. In the United States, some argue Social Security numbers have become the de facto national ID. In China, citizens age 16 and up apply for a resident identity card. India has created the world’s largest biometric ID system.

The Unique Identification Authority of India announced in December that 1.3 billion people, or roughly 99% of Indian adults, were enrolled in Aadhaar, an ambitious digital ID program that is increasingly being utilized throughout all spheres of life. And as other nations consider implementing their own national digital ID systems, India may provide insights. 

What is Aadhaar and how does it work? 

The government introduced Aadhaar, meaning “foundation,” in 2009 as a centralized way to ensure every resident had the means to easily establish their identity. This was especially promising for India’s rural poor people, many of whom struggled to access social and financial services because they didn’t have the proper documents. 

To set up an Aadhaar profile, residents offer biometric data – specifically iris scans, fingerprints, and photographs – in exchange for a unique 12-digit identity number. The government stores that information in a database, which certain third-party services can access to confirm your identity when needed. Shortly after sign-up, users receive a physical Aadhaar card, though electronic versions are also available nowadays. 

In addition to making tasks like opening bank accounts and obtaining SIM cards more convenient for Aadhaar users, this system also helps the government prevent identity duplication and other forms of fraud. In 2019, some 49% of India’s citizens used the Aadhaar card to access services such as pensions and food rations for the first time, according to the State of Aadhaar report. Yet controversy has surrounded Aadhaar since its inception.

How are concerns being addressed? 

When the cards were introduced, there were few policy regulations to protect citizens’ data, leading to a 2018 data leak that made Aadhaar data on 200 official government websites public. The system has since implemented tighter security practices, according to former Aadhaar engineer Sanjay Jain, including automatically wiping authentication data after six months. 

Although enrollment is voluntary, critics say Aadhaar has become essential for participation in public and economic life. For all the ways it makes government services more efficient, the ambitious and experimental system is also vulnerable to glitching, creating major problems for those it aims to serve. When access was denied due to issues with authentication, people lost out on food assistance and had trouble enrolling in school.

“When the Aadhaar worked, it really helped people. When it didn’t, it really hurt people,” says Pam Dixon, executive director of the World Privacy Forum. India’s Supreme Court cited her research twice in a 2018 ruling that attempted to set guardrails on Aadhaar usage.

Still, as the Aadhaar system grows and evolves, it’s often unclear how to access services without it, and recent efforts to tie Aadhaar to voter registration and income tax collection have rekindled debate over whether Aadhaar is truly “voluntary.”

Why does Aadhaar matter beyond India?

The World Bank reports that up to a billion people globally have no form of identification, with the highest concentration in Africa and Asia. Digital biometric ID systems are an increasingly attractive solution – especially to governments in developing countries – for their simplicity, relatively low cost, and promise of universal access. 

Joseph Atick, digital identity expert and co-founder of the ID4Africa conference, calls India “a laboratory for the rest of the world.”

“The most successful feature of Aadhaar,” he said in a recent webinar, is “the fact that you have been able to enroll so many people in such a short period of time.”

Many governments, including in nearby Malaysia and Sri Lanka, are looking to India for insight on how to build their own digital ID systems. While Aadhaar won’t be a perfect blueprint for every country, experts say its rollout offers lessons to anyone hoping to close the ID gap.

“Aadhaar is seen as a model,” says Ms. Dixon. “It’s very, very important for people to have access to a just, fair, equitable ID.”